TOPIC ESSAY QUESTION V

Essay 7a

QUESTION: Is Art in anyway, an intrinsic part of or a primary factor in religion or religious expression and if so, how did it specifically play a part in the development of Christianity?

 PART ONE:

SUMMARY: What I experienced in my attempt to answer this Topic Question was trying to find the relationship of art and religion, specifically in Christianity and incorporating all the information I found correctly.

REASON: The reason this question was asked was to see the relationship between art and religion and how art was effected the development of Christianity.

PURPOSE: The purpose this question was asked was to better understand the relationship between art and religion and how art evolved alongside Christianity from its beginnings to now. 

DIRECTION: I read a lot of information on how art and religion interact with one another and how Christianity used art, in worship and teachings.

IMPRESSION:  I had a basic idea of how of how religion and art interact, having read about it for the previous essay as well as the information given in your lectures. I still had to find additional information to answer the question as well as find more information on how art was used in Christianity.

PART TWO:

            Religion can be defined as “the human quest for coherence and meaning in the understanding of the world” (http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=514). Human emotions, experiences and philosophies are expressed through art (http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=514). Religion and art have contributed in rendering each other more attractive as well as strengthening each other (http://www.oldandsold.com/articles30/art-theory-9.shtml). Art can express the devotion in beautiful forms to kindle excitement and promote feelings of devotion (http://www.scrollpublishing.com/store/Early-Christian-Art.html).

            “The spread of religion owes itself as much to the deeply mystical of art through which it was expressed, as much as [as its own]…powerful philosophy” (http://ezinearticles.com/?Art-and-Religion---The-Two-Foster-Brothers-at-War&id=1562522). In Christian art narratives are depicted stories that teach morals or key elements of its beliefs. It also consists of iconic images created to symbolize the main concepts of the religion (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.224). Early Christian art used images from other traditions, but changed their meaning (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.222). Depictions of stories from the Hebrew Bible (the Old Testament) were used in the earliest Christian art (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.230).

            Christian art began merging “Roman imagery with Greek motifs” (http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/religious-art.htm). Later on, Christian iconography became the standard. The purpose of religious art is to win converts, whether it is directly or not (http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/religious-art.htm). “By expounding the message of an ordered Universe under God, Christian art also contributed to the creation and preservation of social order”  (http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/religious-art.htm).

            By the fourth century Christianity grew, attracting converts from different social classes. (http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/early-christian-Art-after-constantine.html). Christian art was  enriched through the cultural interaction with the Greco-Roman world” (http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/early-christian-Art-after-constantine.html). “Pictures of Christ came into use slowly and gradually, as the conceptions concerning his personal appearance changed” (http://www.scrollpublishing.com/store/Early-Christian-Art.html). The representation of Christ evolves from a shepherd to an enthroned ruler and later his crucifixion, as seen in the images below.

Source Link The Good Shepherd

Lunette over the entrance, Oratory of Galla Placidia.

Source Link Christ Enthroned, Flanked by Angels, St. Vitalis and Bishop Ecclesius

Church of San Vitalis, Ravenna.

Source Link Crucifixion

Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece.

            In the Byzantine world Christians would pray to Christ, Mary, and saints while looking at the depicted images (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.244). These icons were “accepted as aids to meditation and prayer, as intermediaries between worshipers and the holy personages they depicted” (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.245).

Source Link Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels

Icon. Monastery of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt.

            During the Romanesque period the church portals would be carved with narrative scenes, which drew people’s attention to the compelling images (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.453). “Rather than embodying unchanging theological notions or awe-inspiring apocalyptic appearances, these figures [the image below] convey human frailties and torments in order to persuade viewers to follow the Church’s moral teachings” (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.476).

Source Link Reliefs on left wall of porch, Priory Church of Saint-Pierre, Moissac

            “Religious art is any work whose theme supports the moral message of the religion it…illustrate[s]” (http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/religious-art.htm) Art is a visual and tangible tool which facilitates the understanding of religion. The deep emotions religion inspire through art is compelling and draws you in, whether or not you believe in that specific religion or not. Christian art was meant to assist in the worship of God and teach others its religious beliefs (the path to salvation or condemnation).

TOPIC ESSAY QUESTION IV

Essay 6b

Art and Religion

QUESTION: What is the relationship of Protestantism to the art of the northern Renaissance, as compared to that of Catholicism to the art of the southern Renaissance and was either “art” more affected by religion or, was the “religion” more affected by the art?

PART ONE:

SUMMARY: What I experienced in my attempt to answer this Topic Question was trying not to get lot with all the information relevant to the Renaissance and trying to incorporate the information needed cohesively in the essay.

REASON: The reason this question was asked was to see the similarities and differences of the impact religion had in the art of northern and southern Renaissance.

PURPOSE: The purpose this question was asked was to better understand the relationship between art and religion. How societies change and affect others.

DIRECTION: I read a lot of information on the Renaissance, art, religion (Catholicism and Protestant Reform), and some information on Early Medieval period. I started outlining what was important and trying not keep looking up information that seemed relevant, which ended up not being necessary to answering the question.

IMPRESSION:  I had a basic idea of how I was going to answer the question, already knowing some of the basic history on the Renaissance and about Martin Luther’s 95 theses, but I had a bit of difficulty finding and then later using the information to correctly answer the question.

PART TWO:

The Renaissance or “rebirth” started in Medieval Italy. It was believed that the “dawn of day” would extinguish the “darkness” of the Early Medieval period, by reviving the art and architecture of Ancient Greece and Rome. The creation of a “new universe” was achieved by returning to the past. During this period man discovers himself and the meaning of having a “unique individual consciousness” (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTrEazY_pGo).

            The Renaissance period is not a total breaking-free of religion, but an amalgamation of secularism and religion (http://arthistoryclub.com/art_history/Northern_Renaissance). During this period man was seen as logical and capable of feeling or consciousness, with the capability to make his own decisions. This concept, humanism, saw man as essentially good, contradicting the Christian point-of-view, which sees man as a sinner in need of redemption (http://arthistoryclub.com/art_history/Italian_Renaissance). “Man found that in classical as well as biblical antiquity existed an ideal of human life, both moral and intellectual” (http://history-world.org/renaissance.htm).

            In southern Italy during the Romanesque period, artists had already begun to draw inspiration from ancient sculpture (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.522). The Roman sarcophagus reliefs near the Pisa Baptistery could have been used as reference models for Nicola Pisano’s carvings (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.524). “The sculptural treatment of the deeply cut, full-bodied form is certainly Classical in inspiration, as are the heavy, placid faces” (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.524).

Source Link Pisano’s Annunciation, Nativity and Adoration of the shepherds, Pisa Baptistery, Italy.

The sculptures in the Pisa Baptistery, shows a “degree of pathos and physical realism”. One of the figures in the pulpit resembles the “classical Hercules,” infused with the Christian spirit. Its “sinuous upper torso”(ribcage) is repeated, on a smaller scale, in the figure representing the crucified Christ, intensifying the agony of his suffering on the cross (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTrEazY_pGo).

Source Link Pisano’s Hercules on pulpit, Pisa Baptistery, Italy.

Source Link Pisano’s Crucifixion on pulpit, Pisa Baptistery, Italy.

With the increase of wealthy patrons of art in Italy during the fourteenth century, artists began to develop a sense of self-confidence and individuality, perhaps encouraged by their social and economic freedom (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.531). Where once, during the Middle Ages, living in fear of sin, death, and judgment was the norm and were ignorance was seen as proof of devotion to God, the Renaissance freed man from the “thick veil” obscuring his path of self-discovery and the world around him (http://history-world.org/renaissance.htm).

The beginnings of northern Renaissance saw a familiarity in art with that of the southern Renaissance. Both the north and south shared the same faith and a religious theme in art, until 1517, when Martin Luther ignited the spark of Reformation (http://arthistory.about.com/cs/arthistory10one/a/north_ren_2.htm). Albrecht Durer’s introduction of classical themes into Northern art, with his knowledge of Italian artists and humanist way of thinking, has fortified his standing as an influential figure of the Northern Renaissance (http://www.albrecht-durer.org/).

Source Link Durer’s Magnani Collection, Mamiano, 1495, Parma Region.

In the north unlike Italy, Gothic art had a lengthier run in the Renaissance period, influencing the architecture well into the sixteenth century. The social changes during the Renaissance brought about differing facets in the northern and southern Europe. Humanism, in Italy, led to their need to learn from Classical antiquity and discover the extent of human rational. The north being more concerned with religious reform, believing Rome to have drifted from Christian values, began defying the power of Church, which lead to the art shedding its religious cloak and turning to secularism (http://arthistory.about.com/cs/arthistory10one/a/north_ren.htm).

Northern Humanism focused on using the Classical knowledge acquired to deeply examine religion (http://www.worldhistory.knowledge4africa.com/reformation/reformation-01.jsp). The Reformation came about with the wanting to break-free of rigid religious institutes and the sense of individualism, that each man is responsible for their own standing before God (http://arthistoryclub.com/art_history/Protestant_Reformation). “The Reformation exhibits, in the region of religious thought and national politics, what the Renaissance displays in the sphere of culture, art, and science- the recovered energy and freedom of humanity” (http://history-world.org/renaissance.htm).

Unlike Italian artists, during the Renaissance, who focused on proportion, anatomy, and perspective, northern artists focused getting as many details as possible into a painting and color beyond form. Because of the location and climate in the north, oil paints were developed. On the other hand in Italy, egg tempera paintings and frescos were produced (http://arthistory.about.com/cs/arthistory10one/a/north_ren.htm).

Giotto Di Bondone of Florence is considered to be the first of several artists to contribute to the Italian Renaissance (http://www.giottodibondone.org/). From his observation of life he painted three-dimensional figures occupying actual space displaying profound emotions (http://history-world.org/italren2.htm).

Source Link Giotto’s Adoration of the Magi, Scrovegni (Arena) Chapel, Padua

Jan van Eyck, a northern Renaissance painter, is recognized for figuring out how to layer oil paints in his paintings to create light and depth of color (http://arthistory.about.com/cs/arthistory10one/a/north_ren_3.htm).

Source Link  Van Eyck’s Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his Wife 1434

Northern Renaissance artist Pieter Brueghel’s paintings include landscapes and scenes of peasant life, stressing the absurd and vulgar, also “expose human weaknesses and follies” (http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/bruegel/).  

Source Link Brueghel's Landscape with the Fall of Icarus

“The connection between religion and art has ever contributed to render both more attractive, and to give strength to the influences of each” (http://www.oldandsold.com/articles30/art-theory-9.shtml). Both religion and art, strive to elevate and awaken in us the desire towards an ideal world (http://www.pravmir.com/article_132.html). “Religion has…done much for art, not only indirectly by affording the best patronage for it which it has received, but directly in a more important manner by supplying it with the noblest themes for its exercise that it has obtained” (http://www.pravmir.com/article_132.html). Art was used to bring to life the stories, teachings and morals of religion (Art History, M. Stokstad M. W. Cothren, p.473).

TOPIC ESSAY QUESTION III

Essay 3b

Truth and Beauty

QUESTION: Using specific art refernces, why did the Greeks consider "beauty" to be the same as "truth" and how different was this philosophy from that of the Romans? 

PART ONE:

SUMMARY: What I experienced in my attempt to answer this Topic Question was the difficulty in finding the right information on beauty, truth, and reality and how to incorporate it correctly in the essay.

REASON: The reason this question was asked was to see how different these two cultures are in perceiving their truth.

PURPOSE: The purpose this question was asked was to better understand the art of these cultures and how it relates to their perception of truth.

DIRECTION: I read any information I could find on Greek and Roman art, since all I knew of both cultures was its mythology.

IMPRESSION:  I struggled mostly writing this essay than I did with the previous two essays. I did learn about some of Plato philosophies.

PART TWO:

What is “beauty,” “truth,” or “reality”? One of the definitions of “beauty” is “the quality present in a thing or person that gives intense pleasure or deep satisfaction to the mind…” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/beauty?s=t).The word “truth” can mean “conformity with fact or reality” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/truth?s=t).  “

Reality” is the “resemblance to what is real” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/reality?s=t).  In Greek art, the ideals of beauty was the main concept (Art History 4^th Edition, p 101).

The Greek Classical art has a connection with humanism, rationalism, and idealism (Art History 4^th Edition, p 119). “The ancient Greeks…followed these injunctions in their art: … [to] seek an ideal based on the human form;…seek the inner significance of forms; and …reproduce only essential forms” (Art History 4^th Edition, p 119).

Source Link The Charioteer

Source Link

            The Charioteer, a bronze life-size statue,  memorializes the achievement of a driver in the Pythian Games (Art History 4^th Edition, p 125). “The face of this handsome youth is highly idealized…” (Art History 4^th Edition, p 125). The youth’s solemn face is attributed to the fact that the Greeks believed that the show of emotions publicly was a sign of barbarism (http://www.greeklandscapes.com/greece/athens_museum_classical.html). The figure stands straight looking regal in a long folding robe (Art History 4^th Edition, p 125).

Source Link The Warrior

Source Link

            The Warrior, a bronze statue, blends the idealized “perfection” with the details in the body found through nature in observation (Art History 4^th Edition, p 125). The placement and details from the copper lips and nipples, to the colored glass and bone eyes, and silver teeth are elements that continue in the “High” Classical period. The figures stance is that of a contrapposto (Art History 4^th Edition, p 125).

Source Link Spear Bearer (Doryphoros)

Source Link

      “Studying the actual human beings closely and selecting those human attributes they [sculptures] considered most desirable…[were] combined…into single ideal of physical perfection” (Art History 4^th Edition, p 134). Polykleitos was a sculptor of the High Classical period (Art History 4^th Edition, p 134). He developed rules for proportions, written down and shown in the Doryphoros. Both are known as “The Canon” (http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Polykleitos.aspx). This figure is positioned with it full weight on the right leg (contrapposto) and a spear in its left hand over its shoulder (http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Polykleitos.aspx).

Greek art  and its ideal of beauty was parallel to the Greek philosophy(rt History 4^th Edition, p 171). “Beauty” is one of Plato’s examples of Forms or Ideas (http://www.rowan.edu/open/philosop/clowney/Aesthetics/philos_artists_onart/plato.htm). “For Plato, these Forms are perfect Ideals, but they are also more real than physical objects” (http://www.rowan.edu/open/philosop/clowney/Aesthetics/philos_artists_onart/plato.htm). He believed that the best life is one that attempts to understand and to imitate the Forms repeatedly (http://www.rowan.edu/open/philosop/clowney/Aesthetics/philos_artists_onart/plato.htm).

Source Link Patrician Carrying Portrait Busts Of Two Ancestors (Barberini Togatus)

Source Link Portrait Head Of An Elder

Unlike Greek artists, which focused on the idealized human form, Romans emphasized realism in the rendering of portraiture (http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Polykleitos.aspx). “The …portraiture in Roman art may stem from the early practice of creating likenesses… of revered figures and distinguished ancestors for display on public occasions… [and] funerals” (Art History 4^th Edition, p 170). The faces in these sculptures captured every aspect of the individual including its advanced age, as seen in the image above (Art History 4^th Edition, p 171).

Source Link

The Portrait Of A Married Couple is an example of realism in still-life and portraits of Roman art. This portrait was discovered on one of the walls of Pompeian houses (Art History 4^th Edition, p 185). The details, space and placement of facial features gave away the fact that these are painted observing this individuals closely. (Art History 4^th Edition, p 187).

TOPIC QUESTION ESSAY II

Essay 2c

Compare & Contrast - The Great Divide and the Final Curtain

INSTRUCTIONS: Find and post the images of the artwork(s) mentioned in the Topic Essay Question.
QUESTION: Describe the Egyptian papyrus painting popularly referred to as the Last Judgement or Final Judgement with that of the sculpture Last Judgement by Giselbertus. How do the two compare with the Last Judgement by Michelangelo Buonarroti?

PART ONE:

SUMMARY: What I experienced in my attempt to answer this Topic Question was how difficult it was, at first, to find information on Giselbertus and Michelangelo's Last Judgement.

REASON: The reason this question was asked was to see the similarities and differences between the same subject matter.

PURPOSE: The purpose this question was asked was so that we can understand how the core elements, although portrayed in different beliefs, were uncannily the same, and how they evolve with with time and cultures. Also, so that we can understand how we, as individuals, can interpret things differently, which means that reality is subjective, but should be open to new and different realities.

DIRECTION: I mainly focused on Giselbertus' Last Judgment and Michelangelo's Last Judgement fresco painting, as well as some mythologies.

IMPRESSIONS: Since I learned more about Egyption afterlife with the previous essay, I mainly focused on the other two artworks. I learned how time periods and what is happening around you influences your way of thinking and the way you perceive things, specifically in art.

PART TWO:

        In Ancient Egypt, it was believed that a heart free of sin would guarantee a gratifying afterlife. The deceased would undertake two tests that were assigned by the god of the dead, Osiris, and overseen by Anubis, the jackal-headed god (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p. 76). The heart, where the Egyptians believed the soul resided, would be weighed on a scale alongside Ma'at's "feather of Truth." The goddess Ma'at represents truth, order and justice (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p.77).

Source Link Egyptian papyrus painting of "Last Judgement"

        The image above was taken from Hunefer's "Book of the Dead". The painting depicts three distinct phases of Hunefer's afterlife (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p.77). He is being led by Anubis (at the bottom-left) to the "Hall of Truths" towards the center where Hunefer's heart will be weighed by Anubis. If the heart weighs less than Ma'at's feather, he could pass on to the afterlife, if not, then he would be consummed by Ammut (the fusion of a lion, hippopotamus and crocodile) demon (http://www.crystalinks.com/egyptafterlife.html). Thoth, the ibis-headed god, waits for the results of the test so that he can record them (Art History, M. Stokstad/M. W. Cothren, p.78). The falcon-headed god, Horus, presents Hunefer to Osiris, who is seated on his throne in the right side of the papyrus (http://www.crystalinks.com/egyptafterlife.html). On the top of the papyrus, Hunefer is seen kneeling before the judges, having been accepted in to the afterlife (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p.78).

        The Romanesque Church Portal's central element is the semi-circle structure known as the tympanum, which sits above the lintel (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p.473). On St. Lazare Cathedral's west portal, the story of the Last Judgement is sculpted (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p.477). Done in the 12th Century, it is believed that Giselbertus was the main sculptor (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p.478). The reason behind this conclusion is the inscription under Christ's feet which says "Giselbertus made this" (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p.478).

Source Link "Last Judgement" by Giselbertus

        Since most people were illiterate in the Middle Ages (12th Century), biblical stories were depicted in paintings, sculptures, and through other mediums."The images are text, meant to be read" (Video, Tympanum of the Last Judgment, Autun).

Source Link Tympanum of the Last Judgement, Autun

        Christ, at the center, is the largest figure which is sitting on his throne inside a mandorla (a full body halo - representing his divinity) and is surrounded by angels clutching the halo as if it were heavy (Video, Tympanum of the Last Judgement, Autun).

        Christ, who has returned to earth, stares out in judgement (Video, Tympanum of the Last Judgement, Autun) at the bodies depicted along the lintel rising from the tombs. The condemned, tortured souls headed for hell are at Christ's left, and the blessed souls headed for Heaven are at his right (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p. 477).

        On the bottom left part of the Tympanum, archangel Michael weighs souls while demons try to tip the scales of the sinners to gain souls for hell (Video, Tympanum of the Last Judgement, Autun). The grotesque figures of the demons and the souls being pulled to hell, instill fear on the viewers, making them aware of what is to come if they do not ment their ways (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p. 479). There is a message written underneath the condemned which says: "Here let fear strike those whom earthly error binds, for their fate is shown by the horror if these figures..." (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p. 477).

        On the top right part of the tympanum is the "Virgin Mary enthroned" in heaven with an angel at her side blowing a trumpet to wake the dead and announce the coming of Christ. Angels welcome the blessed to Heaven (Video, Tympanum of the Last Judgement, Autun). Underneath the figures the words: "Thus shall rise again everyone who does not lead an impious life, and endless light of day shall shine of him..." (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p. 477).

        The scale, compared to the others, and the central position of Christ's figure (which is elongated and symmetrical) emphasizes its hierarchy, while the mandorla and his throne represent his divinity and power (Video, Tympanum of the Last Judgement, Autun).

        This sculpture is similar, yet different, to the Egyptian's Last Judgement. Osiris, who is also seated on his throne, is not larger nor is he positioned at the center of the illustration, although his throne is elevated, making him seem taller than the other figures. He does, however, wear the "...White Crown of Lower Egypt...[while holding] the shepherd's crook to symbolize his role as shepherd of mankind..." (http://www.crystalinks.com/egyptafterlife.html). This is parallel to the Christian belief found in Psalm 23:1, which says: "The Lord is my shepherd..." On his other hand, Osiris holds "the flail, to represent his ability to separate the wheat from the chaff" (http://www.crystalinks.com/egyptafterlife.html).

        The weighing of the souls is a recurring element in both works. In the Egyptian version of the Last Judgement, Anubis leads the dead to the underworld and weighs their soul against Ma'at's feather. The archangel Michael has combines Anubis' duties with Ma'at's justice since the archangel is "generally depicted with his sword of Mercy or Justice..." (http://www.nasrinsafai.com/angels/archangel-michael/). On both art works, once the deceased passes the test, they are welcomed to a joyful afterlife. On the other hand, should they fail, in Christian belief they are cast to Hell, while the Egyptians believed that their soul would be consummed by Ammut.

        Michelangelo's Last Judgement was made during the 16th Century. It portrays the end of th world, Christ's second coming, and the outcome of the resurrected humans. The painting is intended to instill fear, faithfullness, and respect towards God (http://www.moodbook.com/history/renaissance/sistine-chapel-last-judgement.html#sistine-chapel-the-last-judgment).

Source Link Michelangelo's "Last Judgement"

        The painting illustrates the events before the sentence is cast upon the souls in the Last Judgement. Christ commands attention while placating the agitated. Mary, the Saints, and Elect, surrounding Christ, nervously wait for his decision. On the lower central section, the dead rise at the sound of trumpets, while at the left, the awakened ascend to Heaven (http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/x-Schede/CSNs/CSNs_G_Giud.html).

        Once again, as with Giselbertus' sculpture of the Last Judgement, there is a conflict between angels and demons. While in Giselbertus' work, the angels cheat by tipping the scales, in Michelangelo's work, they physically fight. The weighing of the souls, featured in many of "Last Judgement" works, has been omitted from Michelangelo's work (Hall, p. 89).

        At the bottom, Charon (the ferryman of Hades) can be seen taking the condemned to Minos (an underworld judge) (http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/x-Schede/CSNs/CSNs_G_Giud.html). Michelangelo has changed the concept of a calm God seated in his throne seeing everything without acting or reacting (Hall, p.89) as is seen in the Egyptian papyrus and St. Lazare's west portal. Instead, he created a standing and commanding prescense actively moving in space (Hall, p.89).

        Even though the three art works deal with the same subject matter (the afterlife), it is clear that the time one lives in, and what is happening around us, influences the way we think and influences our beliefs. The Book of the Dead (which depicted Egyptian beliefs about the dead adn the afterlife) spread out so much so, that, by the 17th dynasty, royalty wasn't exclusive in owning this text (http://www.crystalinks.com/egyptafterlife.html). The Judgement of Hunefer before Osiris is from the 19th dynasty (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p. 77). This shows how the belief in an afterlife still held importance in Egypt. During the Romanesque period, facades with sculpted portals told moving stories, which was very common and culturally accepted (Art History, M. Stokstad/M.W. Cothren, p. 473). The Tympanum of the Last Judgement is an example of how the beliefs of this time period influenced a society. Michelangelo's Last Judgement was done in the 16the Century, around the time when the Protestant Reformation and Catholic counter-reformation was occurring (Hall, p.88). Although these three societies were different in culture and time period, they still had the same belief in an afterlife.

Work Cited

Hall, Marcia B. "Michelangelo's Last Judgement: Ressurrection Of The Body And Predestination." Art Bulletin 58.1 (1976): 85. Academic Search Complete. Web. 29 Sept. 2012.